Scientific Subdiscipline: Linguistics; phonology; tone and intonation

Network Convenor: Carlos Gussenhoven

Centre for Language Studies, University of Nijmegen
Postbus 9103
NL-6500 HD Nijmegen
Tel: +31 24 361 2839
Fax: +31 24 361 1882
Email: c.gussenhoven@let.kun.nl

Network coordinators: Amalia Arvaniti, University of Cyprus

Sónia Frota, University of Lisbon
Esther Grabe, University of Cambridge
Gorka Elordieta, University of the Basque Country (Vitoria Gasteiz)
Aditi Lahiri, University of Konstanz
Tomas Riad, University of Stockholm
Norval Smith, University of Amsterdam

The aim of the TIE network is to stimulate and coordinate research on the prosody of European languages and language varieties, with special emphasis on languages that combine lexical tone with an intonation system. More specifically, it aims (1) to bring together the Autosegmental-Metrical research tradition in intonation and the research on tone languages in the description and analysis of prosodic systems, particularly of European languages and language varieties with lexical tone, (2) to confront phonological and linguistic theories with the data from these and other languages, and (3) to support the ambitions of young researchers in the field of sentence prosody. Three workshops and one open conference are planned. Themes include the interaction between intonation and tone, the description of lesser known languages and dialects, phonetic and perceptual aspects, the evolution of pitch accent systems, and tone typology. Dissemination of the results will take place via the specialist journals, but in addition a web site and a substantial book publication are envisaged. Collaboration with a number of related national and international projects will be actively promoted.

1.0 Scientific background

The proposed network’s aim is to bring together researchers who are currently engaged in research on the prosodic structure of European languages, to co-ordinate the presentation of their research results, and confront phonological theories with the data they have collected and the scientific results they have obtained. An important motivation for pursuing this aim is the need felt by these researchers to increase the impact of their work on phonological theory and to contribute to a unified treatment of the prosodic and tonal structures of the languages of the world. A significant opening towards this aim is presented by the fact that a number of European languages possess both highly developed intonation systems and lexical tone. Such languages can show the way to the integrated description of tone and intonation, also in languages that balance the exploitation of the available phonetic space differently, favouring lexical tone distinctions over intonational ones, like many languages outside Europe. Intonational languages and language varieties without lexical tone, moreover, provide excellent opportunities to understand the way humans exploit this phonetic space for the signalling of contrasts, in this case conveying information on the communicative status of sentence constituents. Europe has a wide variety of intonation languages which vary in complexity and whose structure is currently being investigated in detailed comparative studies. Together, these languages present a rich test bed for phonological and phonetic theory.

Lexical tone occurs in languages in which the identity of a word is not just determined by its consonants, vowels and stress pattern, but also by its pitch characteristics. Languages may distinguish words with the help of a number of contrasting pitch patterns, such as two in the case of the Caribbean language Papiamentu, four in the case Mandarin Chinese monosyllabic words, seven for the words of the Nigerian language Etung, and 1 plus n in the case of Japanese words with n syllables, to mention four geographically and typologically disparate languages. In Europe, a number of languages exist that have two such patterns, while Basque dialects exemplify a situation in part reminiscent of Japanese. Because the distribution of tone over the languages shows a bias towards the African continent, South East Asia and the Americas, the study of tone owes its greatest debt to Africanists and Sino-Tibetanists and linguists studying languages of the Americas (e.g. Maddieson 1987, Fromkin 1978, van der Hulst & Smith 1988, Hyman & Kisseberth 1998, Kaji 1999). The general complexity of tone systems readily yields a number of topics in this area, like the difference between contour and level tones, the number of contrasting tones, the lexical distribution of tone melodies, the patterns of association between tone bearers and tones, the morphological and grammatical functions of tone, and the origin of lexical tone.

Most European languages lack lexical tone. The prosodic systems of many European languages, like Spanish, English, German, French, Italian, Russian, Portuguese, Greek, tend to be rich in intonation patterns, used to express the information status of the sentence constituents rather than the identity of lexical forms. There is a long tradition of intonation research, which has focused such topics as the functions of intonation, as in the Prague School and the British tradition of intonation research (e.g. Daneš 1960, Halliday 1967, Brazil 1995), the modelling of intonation contours for speech synthesis (e.g. ’t Hart, Collier & Cohen 1990, Gussenhoven & Rietveld 1992, Hirst, Ide & Véronis 1994, Taylor 1998) and phonological analysis (e.g. Pike 1944, Crystal 1969, Pierrehumbert 1980).

Due largely to the work by Bruce (1977, 1987) on Swedish and Pierrehumbert & Beckman (1988) on Japanese, the investigation of the interaction between lexical tone and intonation has been of considerable importance in the development of phonological theory, as it has had a lasting impact on the representation of the phonology of pitch and has led to a new conception of the relation between phonology and phonetics (cf. Pierrehumbert 1990). Her work has been continued by, among others, Ladd (1983), Gussenhoven (1984), Beckman & Pierrehumbert (1986), Grice (1995) and applied to languages like Dutch (Gussenhoven 1988, 1991, van den Berg et al. 1992), Bengali (Hayes & Lahiri 1991), Venezuelan Spanish (Sosa 1991), German (Uhmann 1991, Féry 1993, Grabe 1998a), varieties of Italian (Grice 1992, D'Imperio 1997), French (Post 2000, Jun & Fougeron, to appear), Greek (Mennen & den Os 1993, Arvaniti & Ladd 1995), Portuguese (Frota 1999). Work has been done, on a much smaller scale, on the tonal structure of languages with more fully developed tonal systems and less conspicuous intonation systems, like Hausa and Yoruba (Leben, Inkelas & Cobler 1989, Connell & Ladd 1990, Inkelas & Leben 1991, Laniran 1991).

It is this success that the network intends to capitalise on and expand on. For this reason, the autosegmental-metrical model as it has developed since Pierrehumbert’s 1980 thesis (cf. Ladd 1996) will provide a unified descriptive and theoretical framework for the network’s research results, heightening the impact that the study of these prosodic systems can make on phonological theory. More specifically, the network will

a. provide a platform for researchers currently undertaking surveys of intonational variation within specific European countries (Britain, Sweden, Germany) or regions (many throughout Europe);

b. further the deployment of the rich array of European language varieties by motivating researchers to increase their efforts to describe and analyse less accessible non-standard language varieties, in particular those that have prosodic systems combining tone and intonation (those spoken in the Baltic, the Basque country, the Central Franconian dialect area in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, the tonal areas in the South Slavic dialect continuum, and languages of immigrant communities, like Papiamentu, spoken in the Dutch Antilles and the Netherlands, Saramaccan and Ndyuka, the latter two spoken by Maroon tribes in Surinam and also in the Netherlands);

c. seek to extend these goals to the description of languages with more extensive lexical tone systems in an effort to unify the descriptive traditions for tone languages and intonation languages. [References suppressed]

An additional motivation for promoting the description of non-standard language varieties as listed under b. is provided by the cultural value they represent. They embody a very large component of the European linguistic and cultural heritage, but are in part seriously threatened with extinction, as they are merging with regional standards or are being replaced by standard languages. As in the case of the dwindling stock of languages in the third world, this circumstance is a disconcerting by-product of a gobalized economy and the attendant changing patterns in social prestige. It is our duty to record and describe this heritage before it is gone.

2.0 Planned activities

Three workshops and an open conference are planned. In addition to the journal articles and book chapters whose production it will stimulate, a book on tone and intonation in Europe and the world will be produced at the end of the network’s period. There will be a clear profile for each of the three workshops, which between them will cover typology, language change, and experimental appraoches. The conference will range over the topics dealt with at the workshops, and will engage specialists on languages outside Europe in order to place the TIE results in a wider perspective. Accordingly, the book publication will feature a strong and coherent presentation of the European languages, within the wider typological context of the languages of the world. Our intention is to organise the meetings jointly with projects whose research aims coincide with the topics of the meeting concerned. A web-site will be created in the first year.

2.1 Themes

2.1.1 The interaction of tone and intonation

All languages have intonation: minimally it is used to demarcate prosodic constituents, with a default melody anchored to their edge(s). Commonly, several melodies, each expressing a different meaning or set of meanings, are available, while the location and the shape of the pitch accent may be used to signal information status. Tone may interact with this range of situations in various ways. Thus, Kanerva (1990) shows how focus influences prosodic phrasing in Chichewa, which in turn has consequences for the lexical tones of the language. Intonational melodies may cause lexical tones to vary in shape, as is the case in Thai (Luksaneeyanawin 1993), while polar question intonation in Hausa neutralises the contrast between lexical H and HL (Inkelas & Leben 1990).

For the European languages, this interaction is particularly relevant, as first shown in the work of Bruce (1977), where the difference between lexical and intonational tone appeared to lie solely in their raison d’être. Interestingly, in the phonological representation of the sentence, they are tones of the same type, and will interact in adjustments just as lexical tones do among each other, something which is particularly clearly illustrated by the Dutch dialects of Venlo and Roermond (Gussenhoven & van der Vliet 1999, Gussenhoven, 2000a). Comparison between related dialects with and without lexical tone may provide new insights into the relation between phonological representation and phonetic output. For instance, Smiljanic’ & Hualde (2000) have shown how the phonetic space utilised by the lexical tone contrast in Neo-Štokavian varieties with lexical tone is given up in favour of focus distinctions in dialects without, while Heijmans (1999) shows how a phonological quantity contrast in a non-tonal Dutch dialect mimics the tonal contrasts of neighbouring dialects. These novel perspectives exemplify the productivity of the approach whereby tone and intonation are studied together, and TIE will accordingly be strongly committed to stimulating research that clarifies how tonal contrasts are realised in the full range of intonational conditions. Laboratory Phonology provides the methodological framework for this research. Careful and well-planned data collection, acoustic analysis, statistical processing and perceptual evaluation may be part of the investigation process.

2.1.2 Phonetic aspects

Detailed investigations of tonal alignment as well as comparative research into dialect variation has produced significant results relating to the phonetic realisation of tonal and intonational contrasts. Peak alignment in West Germanic has been shown to be sensitive to topic structure (Wichmann, House & Rietveld 1997), the size of the focus constituent (Peters 2000), emphasis (Ladd & Morton 1997), speech rate (Silverman & Pierrehumbert 1990), rhyme length (e.g. Steele 1986), the structure of onset and rhyme (e.g. Rietveld & Gussenhoven 1995), and the tenseness class of vowels (Bob Ladd, various presentations). Numerous investigations have established communicative and structural correlates of peak height. The alignment of intonational pitch movements with the segmental structure has recently shown to be far more accurate than hitherto assumed (Arvaniti, Ladd & Mennen 1998), while also varying from language to language. A phonetic typology of alignment is a likely outcome of further research in this area. Together, such research results demonstrate the significance of the recent shift in understanding of the relation between phonological representation and phonetic implementation. Grzegorz Dogil (Stuttgart) has supervised the development of an algorithm by Möhler for the automatic determination of three phonetic parameters of pitch peaks, peak height, peak alignment (relative to automatically detected syllable and segment boundaries), and slope. Phonetic modelling of this type is likely to assist researchers in automatically extracting information from acoustic data, as applied to large corpora.

Another topic is the perceptual salience of lexical tone contrasts in varying intonational conditions.The question arises to what extent low degrees of salience have perceptual consequences, as established on the basis of listeners' identification of synthetic versions of the tones. Research on a low-prestige dialect spoken in Belgium suggests that identification may be variable across speakers (Heijmans 1999b).

2.1.3 Expansion of the data base

Many of the language varieties the Network will be interested in have not been described in any detail or in a sufficiently accessible form. If better descriptions were available, these varieties would no doubt lead to a more complete understanding of the typology of tone systems, increase our understanding of language change, and feed into the development of phonological theory. There are signs that in the period of time that the TIE Network would be operative, such data will in fact become available. A number of research projects are currently underway that involve the collection of new data and with which the co-ordinators entertain close links (cf. the listing below). Moreover, there would appear to be an increased awareness among linguists of the need to have reliable, detailed information available on less well described languages and language varieties. A recent example is the description in Ladefoged, Ladefoged, Turk, Hind & Skilton (1998), which shows that Gaelic may in fact be a language with lexical tone, and at least has lexical surface contrasts which involve pitch differences alone. It is to be expected such efforts will benefit from the motivation that the interest in new data by the TIE Network will provide.

2.1.4 Evolution of accentual systems.

Tonogenesis in Southeast Asia is generally assumed to develop from pitch differences resulting from the reinterpretation of phonation distinctions in onset obstruents and coda laryngeals (Hombert, Ohala & Ewan 1979, Svantesson 1989, Matisoff 1999). For the Dutch-German contrast, vowel quality seems at least to have played a partial role in the development of the tone contrast, in addition to the voicing of post-vocalic obstruents (Lahiri, Riad & Jacobs 1999), although Schmidt (1986) was pessimistic about the chances to reconstruct the history of the contrast, in view of the apparent reversal in their distribution in certain areas vis-à-vis the distribution found in the Cologne heartland. For the Scandinavian accents, prosodic factors like stress and sentence intonation are usually proposed as the sources (Oftedal 1952, Öhman 1967, Riad 1998b, 2000). More recently, a purely morphologically motivated origin of the Central Franconian tone contrast was proposed (Gussenhoven, 2000b). The question arises what the range of potential sources is for tonogenesis and accentual evolution. Europe seems a fruitful area for this type of question, since tonal contrasts have apparently arisen independently on more than one occasion in the recent history, even if Baltic and Serbo-Croatian are excluded as possibly continuing a prosodic system of the proto-language. In this theme, input from outside Europe will be particularly important. Any reconstructions of earlier stages, as given for Indo-European by Kiparsky (1973), Kiparsky & Halle (1977), Halle (1997) and classical Greek by Devine & Stephens (1994) will also find a place in this theme.

2.1.5 Typology

What are the parameters of variation for lexical tone systems? How does tone relate to stress? What types of intonational pitch accents are there? Are the phonetic contrasts employed for lexical tone and those employed for intonation identical, as suggested by recent advances in phonological representation? At least since McCawley (1978), the question of the typology of stress and tone has been on the agenda of researchers (cf. van der Hulst 1999). It is questionable if all the categories that have been proposed (stress language, tone language pitch accent language, intonation language) in fact ought to be recognised as meaningful types, and certainly the notions stress language and tone language would not appear to divide the data up in a coherent way, since lexical tone frequently makes its appearance in languages with salient stress systems. Yet, it still seems an elusive exercise to determine the parameters of variation in prosodic systems. Hyman (1998) rejects the idea that there is a separate category ‘pitch accent language’, thereby also rejecting the typological notion ‘pitch accent’ as a meaningful entity. The term has been applied to rather disparate systems, from Japanese, with its almost free occurrence of a pitch accent on (at most) one lexically specified syllable of the word, to Scandinavian, which restricts the location for its lexical tone opposition to the stressed syllable of the word. European languages certainly give short shrift to the notion ‘intonation language’, as illustrated by the dialect of Maastricht, which appears to have a more complex intonation system than many intonation languages elsewhere in Europe and the world, yet has lexical tone (cf. Gussenhoven & Aarts, 1999). Research efforts are likely to benefit from a strict separation of morphological and phonological criteria, as well as from typologies of smaller language groups (Riad 1996, 1998c).

The typology of intonation, in the sense of phonological patterns of pitch variation, has not yet progressed to a point where interesting generalisations can be made. An important step was taken by Ladd (1996), when he adapted the types of segmental differences between dialects recognised since Weinreich (1954) to intonational structure, arguing that differences between intonational systems can be similarly classified. An important issue will be the extent to which lexical tone and intonation can be captured in the same typological framework, and whether intonational and word tonal contrasts form a homogeneous set, or even constitute coincident sets. While the same theory is available for European pitch accent languages and, say, languages in South East Asia, these languages seem rather different, the latter having a much higher tone density. Or again, it would be interesting to know whether the fact that moraic, as opposed to syllabic, assocation has so far only been claimed to exist in languages with lexical tone is a coincidence.

Other themes that have been proposed will not necessarily be covered in the workshops, but may make an appearance at the conference. Among these are transcription of tone and intonation, particularly with a view to corpus annotation, intonation and tone in speech technology, functional aspects of intonation contours, universal and language-specific aspects of intonational meaning, and tone and intonation in language contact and language learning.

2.2 Cooperation with other projects

The TIE Network will provide a platform for researchers who are currently involved in related projects. Where practicable, TIE will cooperate with them in the organisation of workshops and the conference where this is advantageous and practicable. We briefly list these, together with the name(s) of the main investigator(s):

1. Das Intonationslexikon: Konturen und Zeitabbildung in gelesenen Texten (Aditi Lahiri, Konstanz) funded by the DfG.

2. Intonation in the British Isles (Esther Grabe and Francis Nolan, Cambridge), funded by ESRC.

3. SweDia 2000 (Olle Engstrand, Stockholm, Gösta Bruce, Lund, and Robert Bannert, Umeå), funded by the Bank of Sweden.

4. Untersuchungen zur Struktur und Funktion regionalspezifischer Intonationsverläufe im Deutschen (Peter Auer, Freiburg, and Margret Selting, Potsdam), funded by DfG.

5. TypisT. The Typology of Intonation, Stress and Lexical Tones in Slavic, Baltic and Germanic Languages (Tomas Riad, Stockholm, chief co-ordinator; Carlos Gussenhoven, Nijmegen, Aditi Lahiri, Konstanz, Anton Zimmerling, Tatjana Nikolaeva, Sandro Kodzasov, Moscow), funded by INTAS.

6. The phonology of the French dialects of Basque, in comparison with the phonology of western and southern Basque (Lourdes Onederra, Gorka Elordieta, Vitoria-Gasteiz), funded by the Government of the Basque country.

7. Cross-linguistic Studies of Phonology (Shigeki Kaji, Tokyo), funded by the Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA) of the University of Foreign Studies in Tokyo.

2.3 Preliminary workshops

There will have been two preliminary workshops before the Network will take off. The first was the Workshop on Tone, held 15-17 December 1999 in Schloss Freudental, organised by Aditi Lahiri, University of Konstanz, which workshop had an emphasis on typology, with Larry Hyman, UC Berkeley, and Ilse Lehiste, Ohio State, as special guests. The second is to be organised with an incentive grant from the European Science Foundation and will be co-funded by the Government of the Basque country, to be held in Vitoria-Gasteiz by Gorka Elordieta in June 2001. Among other things, this workshop will be used to plan the three ESF-funded workshop in more detail.

2.4 Student participation

A vital way of ensuring an enduring impact of TIE is to bring in students into the activities. The network has budgeted 12 participations of students in the meetings. Participants will be proposed by coordinators to specific meetings to ensure a good match with themes and languages. We expect students to be fairly advanced (graduate, with a dissertation interest in the area of tone and intonation). Their research on lexical tone and intonation will in large measure be expected to be based on experimental research and to involve primary data. The network would thus promote research in the Laboratory Phonology tradition, as represented by the series of conferences that go by that name, the seventh of which is to be held in Nijmegen in June 2000.

2.5 Dissemination of results

The main channel of dissemination of the Network’s results beyond the actual meetings will be an electronic archive, linked to the envisioned TIE web page. The web page will contain ongoing information on the network activities. The archive should contain complete papers, as well as drafts and handouts, so that anyone who cannot be present at some meeting should easily be able to obtain information on presentations. Obviously, it will also be useful for interested people outside of the network. Towards the end of the network period the web page and archive should be evaluated, to see if it can develop into an established resource for tone and intonation research.

Given the standard of the participants of this network, we expect many workshop contributions to develop into journal articles and other publications. The network will, however, be active in the publication of a final conference volume. For this, a publishing house with a strong record on phonology will be approached.

Including the Network convenor, there are eight co-ordinators. They have been selected on the basis of their excellence in the relevant research area, their qualities as promotors of research and organisers of international scientific meetings. In addition, they represent a large number of European language areas and countries. Alphabetically, these are, with specialisations, projects, and selected recent publications:

Dr Amalia Arvaniti , University of Cyprus, Republic of Cyprus. Prosody of Greek, phonetic realisation. Connell & Arvaniti 1995, Arvaniti & Ladd 1995, Arvaniti, Ladd & Mennen 1988, Arvaniti 1999.

Dr Gorka Elordieta , University of the Basque country (Vitoria-Gasteiz), Spain. Research Professor of Linguistics. Project, with L. Onederra: The phonology of the French dialects of Basque, in comparison with the phonology of western and southern Basque. Elordieta 1997, Jun & Elordieta 1997, Elordieta, Gaminde & Hualde 1998, Elordieta, Gaminde, Hernaez, Salaberria, de Vitales 1999, Hualde, Elordieta, Gaminde & Smiljanic’, in prep.

Dr Sónia Frota , University of Lisbon, Portugal. West Romance prosody, esp. Portuguese, prosody and focus. Frota 1997, 2000, 2000b, Frota & Vigária 2000, 2000b.

Dr Esther Grabe , University of Cambridge, UK. Intonational variation, West Germanic prosody, transcription. ESRC project, with F. Nolan: Intonational Variation in the British Isles. Grabe 1997, 1998a,b, Grabe, Gussenhoven, Haan, Post & Marsi 1997, Grabe, Nolan & Farrar 1998, Grabe, Nolan & Watson 1999, Evans & Grabe 1999, Low & Grabe 1999, Low, Grabe & Nolan, 2001.

Dr Carlos Gussenhoven , University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Professor of General and Experimental Phonology. West Germanic prosody, typology. Project: TypisT. Gussenhoven 1999a,b,c, 2000a,b, Gussenhoven, Repp, Rietveld, Rump & Terken 1997, Heijmans & Gussenhoven 1998, Gussenhoven & Rietveld 1999, Gussenhoven & Bruce 1999, Gussenhoven & van der Vliet 1999.

Dr Aditi Lahiri , University of Konstanz, Germany. Professor of Linguistics. Holder of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize 2000. Projects: Das Intonationslexikon: Konturen und Zeitabbildung in gelesenen Texten. TypisT. Lahiri 1999, 2001, Fitzpatrick-Cole & Lahiri 1997, Lahiri, Riad & Jacobs 1999.

Dr Tomas Riad , University of Stockholm, Sweden. North Germanic prosody; tonogenesis, typology. Projects: INTAS (Chief co-ordinator), The Typology of Intonation, Stress and Lexical Tones in Slavic, Baltic and Germanic Languages (TypisT) . Riad 1996, 1997, 1998, 1998b, 1998c, 2000, in press.

Dr N. Smith , University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Associate Professor of Linguistics. Creoles, phonology, typology. Project: West-African substratum Phonology in Caribbean Creoles.

Other European researchers who have expressed their strong commitment to the TIE Network include:

Dr Hans Basbøll, Professor, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

Dr Gösta Bruce, Professor, University of Lund, Sweden

Dr Grzegorz Dogil, Professor of Experimental Phonetics, Stuttgart, Germany

Mara Frascarelli, Roma 3, Rome, Italy

Dr Inaki Gaminde, University of Bilbao, Spain

Dr Peter Gilles, University of Freiburg, Germany

Dr Aleksas Girdenis, University of Vilnius, Lithuania

Dr I Hernáez, University of Bilbao, Spain

Dr Martine Grice, University of the Saarland, Saarbrücken, Germany

Dr Ben Hermans, University of Brabant, Tilburg, The Netherlands

Dr Gjert Kristoffersen, Professor of Linguistics. University of Bergen, Norway

Dr D. Robert Ladd, Professor of Linguistics, University of Edinburgh, UK

Dr Marco Svolacchia, Roma 3, Rome, Italy

Dr Bonifacas Stundz{MET ACCENT AIGU OP DE Z]ia, University of Vilnius, Lithuania

Researchers outside Europe who have expressed a similar commitment include:

Dr Mary Beckman, Professor, Ohio State University, USA

Dr Chris Golston, Professor, CSU Fresno, USA

Dr José I. Hualde, Professor, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Dr Larry M. Hyman, Professor, UC Berkeley, USA

Dr Sharon Inkelas, Professor, UC Berkeley, USA

Dr J. Ito, Professor, UC Santa Cruz, USA

Dr Shigeki Kaji, Professor, ILCAA, Tokyo, Japan

Dr Haruo Kubozono, Professor, Kobe University, Japan.

Dr Will Leben, Professor, Stanford University, USA

Dr Lisa Selkirk, Professor, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA

Dr Yi Xu, Northwestern University, Evanston IL, USA

Dr Draga Zec, Professor, Cornell University, Cornell NY, USA

Arvaniti, A. (1999). Effects on speaking rate on the timing of single and geminate sonorants. San Francisco, ICPhS 14, 599-602.

Arvaniti, A. & D.R. Ladd (1995). Tonal alignment and the representation of accentual targets. Stockholm: ICPhS 13. 220-223.

 Arvaniti, A, D.R. Ladd, & I. Mennen (1998). Stability of tonal alignment: the case of Greek pre-nuclear accents. Journal of Phonetics 26, 3-25

Beckman, M. E. & J.B. Pierrehumbert (1986). Intonational structure in English and Japanese. Phonology Yearbook 3, 255-310.

Berg, R. van den, C. Gussenhoven & T. Rietveld (1992). Downstep in Dutch: Implications for a model. In G.J. Docherty & D.R. Ladd (eds), Papers in laboratory phonology II. Gesture,segment, prosody. Cambridge UP. 335-359.

Bethin, C.Y. (1998). Slavic Prosody. Language Change and Phonological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Botinis, A., G. Kouroupetroglou & G. Carayiannis (eds), Intonation: Theory, Models and Applications. Proceedings of an ESCA Workshop. Athens: ESCA and University of Athens, Department of Informatics.

Brazil, D.C. (1995). A Grammar of Speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Browne, Wayles E. & James McCawley (1965). Srpskohrvatski akcenat. Zbornik za filologiju i lingvistiku 8, 147-151.

Bruce, G. & E. Gårding (1978). A prosodic typology for Swedish dialects. In Gårding (1978:219-228).

Bruce, G. (1973). Tonal Accent Rules for Compound Stressed Words in the Malmö dialect, Working papers 7. Phonetics Laboratory, Lund University.

Bruce, G. (1974). Tonaccentregler för sammansatta ord in grå sydsvenska stadsmål. In C. Platzack (ed.), Svenskans beskrivning 8.62-75. Lund Univ.: Dept. Scandinavian Languages.

Bruce, G. (1977). Swedish Word Accents in Sentence Perspective. Lund: Gleerup.

Bruce, Gösta. 1998. Allmän och svensk prosodi. (Praktisk lingvistik 16) Department of Linguistics, Lund University.

Carter, H. (1987). Suprasegmentals in Jamaica: Some African comparisons. In Gilbert (1978:213-263).

Connell, Bruce & D. Robert Ladd (1990). Aspects of pitch realisation in Yoruba. Phonology 7, 1-30.

Connell, B. & A. Arvaniti (1995). Papers in Laboratory Phonology IV. Phonology and Phonetic Evidence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Cruz-Ferreira, M. 1998. Intonation in European Portuguese. In D. Hirst & A. Di Cristo (1988: 167-178).

Daneš, F. (1960). Sentence intonation form a functional point of view. Word 16, 34-54.

Devine, A.M. & L.D. Stephens (1994) The prosody of Greek Speech . New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Devonish, H. (1989). Talking in Tones. A Study in Afro-European languages . [sine loco:] Karia Press.

D'Imperio, M. (1997) Narrow focus and focal accent in the Neapolitan variety of Italian. In Botinis et al. (1997:87-90).

Dogil, G. (1999a). The phonetic manifestation of word stress in Lithuanian, Polish and German. In van der Hulst (1999:ch5.1).

Dogil, G. (1999b). Baltic accents. In van der Hulst (1999:ch 12).

Dogil, G., J.Gvozdanovic & S. Kodzasov (1999) Slavic languages . In van der Hulst (1999: 813-876).

Elordieta, G. (1997). Accent, tone and intonation in Lekeitio Basque. In Martinez-Gil, F. & A. Morales-Front (eds), Issues in the phonology and morphology of the major Iberian languages. Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press. 1-78.

Elordieta, G., I. Gaminde & J.I. Hualde (1998). Euskal azentua gaur eta bihar. ["Basque accentuation today and tomorrow"] Euskera 43, 399-423.

Elordieta, G., I. Gaminde, I. Hernaez, J. Salaberria & I. M. de Vidales (1999). Another step in the modeling of Basque intonation: Bermeo. In V. Matoušek, P. Mautner, J. Ocelíková and P. Sojka (eds.) Text, Speech and Dialogue Proceedings of a Second International Workshop. Plzen, Czech Republic. 361-364.

Engstrand, O. (1995). Phonetic interpretation of the word accent contrast in Swedish. Phonetica 52, 171-179.

Engstrand, O., R. Bannert, G. Bruce, C.-C. Elert and A. Eriksson (1997). Phonetics and phonology of Swedish dialects around the year 2000: a research plan. PHONUM 4, Umeå. 97-100.

Evans, B., and Grabe, E. (1999). Connected speech processes in intonation. San Francisco. ICPhS 14. 33-36.

Fitzpatrick-Cole, J. & A. Lahiri (1997) Focus, intonation and phrasing in Bengali and English. In A.Botinis, G. Kouroupetroglou & G. Carayiannis (eds.) Intonation: Theory, Models and Applications. Proceedings of the ESCA Workshop, Athens. 119-122.

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